ABSTRACT A thorough understanding of the emergence pattern and persistence of weed seeds is a prerequisite in framing appropriate weed management options for noxious weeds. In a study

conducted at the University of Queensland, Australia, the emergence and seed persistence behavior of three major weeds _Sonchus oleraceous, Rapistrum rugosum,_ and _Argemone mexicana_ were

explored with seeds collected from Gatton and St George, Queensland, Australia, with an average annual rainfall of 760 and 470 mm, respectively. Seed persistence was evaluated by placing

seeds at the surface layer (0 cm) or buried at 2 and 10 cm depths enclosed in nylon mesh bags and examined their viability for 42 months. In another study, the emergence pattern of four

summer rains and there was progressive germination throughout the winter season reaching cumulative germination ranging from 22 to 29% for all the populations. In the mesh-bag study, it took

about 30 months for the viability of seeds of _R. rugosum_ to deplete at the surface layer and a proportion of seeds (5 to 13%) remained viable at 2 and 10 cm depths even at 42 months.

Although fresh seeds of _R. rugosum_ exhibit dormancy imposed due to the hard seed coat, a proportion of seeds germinated during the summer months in response to summer rains. Rapid loss of

seed viability was observed for _A. mexicana_ from the surface layer; however, more than 30% of the seeds were persistent at 2 and 10 cm depths at 42 months. Notably, poor emergence was

observed for _A. mexicana_ in trays and that was mostly confined to the winter season. SIMILAR CONTENT BEING VIEWED BY OTHERS EFFECT OF EMERGENCE TIME ON GROWTH AND FECUNDITY OF _RAPISTRUM

RUGOSUM_ AND _BRASSICA TOURNEFORTII_ IN THE NORTHERN REGION OF AUSTRALIA Article Open access 29 September 2020 SEED DORMANCY, CLIMATE CHANGES, DESERTIFICATION AND SOIL USE TRANSFORMATION

THREATEN THE MEDITERRANEAN ENDEMIC MONOSPECIFIC PLANT _PETAGNAEA GUSSONEI_ Article Open access 08 April 2024 SEED GERMINATION ECOLOGY OF HOOD CANARYGRASS (_PHALARIS PARADOXA_ L.) AND

HERBICIDE OPTIONS FOR ITS CONTROL Article Open access 09 September 2022 INTRODUCTION Annual sowthistle (_Sonchus oleraceus_ L.), turnip weed [_Rapistrum rugosum_ (L.) All.] and Mexican poppy

(_Argemone mexicana_ L.) are three major winter weeds of agricultural landscapes across the world1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. These weeds are quite predominant under the conservation agricultural

systems of Australia and can invade agricultural landscapes and environments rapidly due to their superior competitiveness, high seed production ability, and their biological features2,9,10.

_Rapistrum rugosum_ and _A. mexicana_ are generally confined to winter growing conditions, exhibiting a high level of competitiveness and reproductive potential, though they can emerge and

set some seeds during the post-winter season2,7,10,11,12. Though _S. oleraceus_ is also a predominant weed of winter seasons, unlike the other two weeds, it can emerge and grow well

throughout the year2,13,14_._ These three weeds can cause a substantial yield reduction in crops and can be a perennial problem as growers find it difficult to manage these weeds once they

have infested the crop7,8,9,15,16. Germination ecology studies of _S. oleraceous_ (Asteraceae family) indicated that this weed could germinate under a wide range of pH, salinity and

temperature conditions, and seeds could germinate immediately after maturity as they lack dormancy2,6,16,17. Also, _S. oleraceous_ could produce a substantial number of seeds and can be

dispersed through wind prior to crop harvest making management quite difficult15. The biological and reproductive potential of this weed makes it a year-round problem13,15,16,17. If

unattended, the post fallow phase following a winter crop can be a breeding ground for this weed as it can flourish under fallows utilizing the residual fertility and soil moisture2,15,18. A

density of about 50 plants m-2 resulted in a yield reduction of 50% in wheat15. Moreover, many herbicide-resistant populations were observed in the cotton and grain cropping regions of

Australia13,14. _Rapistrum rugosum_ is an annual broadleaf weed from the Brassicaceae family and is a major agricultural and environmental weed in countries including Australia, the USA,

Russia, and Iran9,19,20,21. A high level of competitiveness, abundant seed production, and dormancy induced by the seed coat can attribute to the invasive potential of this weed1,9,11. _R.

rugosum_ is a highly competitive weed; about 20 plants m-2 caused a yield reduction of 50% in wheat9. This weed is generally confined to the winter season. However, when emerged in the

latter part of the winter season, plants were short in stature and produced fewer seeds indicating a photoperiodic response in this weed2,12. Seed retention on the plant at harvest

contributes to the potential for weed seed destruction during the harvest time9. This weed can develop herbicide resistance3,22 and lack of integrated management without a multipronged

approach can enhance _R. rugosum_ infestation in the coming years1,9,21. _Argemone mexicana_ is an annual broadleaf weed from the Papaveraceae family. It is a global agricultural weed that

can be both an agricultural and environmental problem, can lead to yield reductions in crops, and can be poisonous to human beings and cattle7,8,10. _A. mexicana_ is quite prevalent in the

cotton tracts and grain cropping regions of Australia13,23. Once infested, the infestation can last for many years. Besides causing crop yield reductions, weed management and cultural

operations can be difficult due to its spiny nature (CottonInfo 2014; Manalil et al_._ 2017). Although poor competitiveness of this weed in wheat is observed9, this weed can be a problem in

the chickpea growing tracts and fallow regions24. Knowledge gaps exist on the seed biology of this weed especially on the fate and germination pattern under field conditions. Although

studies on seed ecology were performed in the region especially on the emergence potential of these weeds under different environments1,11, the persistence of these weeds in the field

conditions and their emergence pattern is not fully understood and explored through scientific studies. The dormancy pattern and persistence can vary under field conditions and such

information is highly important in framing ideal weed management options. To bridge the knowledge gaps in the emergence pattern of these invasive weeds, a study was conducted to explore the

seed persistence and emergence pattern of these weeds under field conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS SEED COLLECTION This study complies with relevant institutional, national, and

international guidelines and legislation for using plant material. The study was conducted at the Gatton Research Farm of the University of Queensland, Australia (S 27.538281, E 152.334269).

The experiment was established with weed populations of _S. oleraceus, R. rugosum_, and _A. mexicana_ collected from the St George and Gatton regions of Queensland, Australia. Four

populations of each species were collected in each region including crop fields and adjacent non-cropping areas (Table 1). The authors confirm that the owner of the land gave permission to

collect the weed seeds, as well as that the field studies did not involve endangered or protected species. Gatton and St George receive an annual average rainfall of 760 mm and 470 mm,

respectively. The locations are characterized by summer dominant rainfall; Gatton and St George receive a share of 40% and 38% of the annual rainfall during summer, respectively. The Gatton

trial location received an annual rainfall of 681, 562, 797, 518, and 230 mm in the years 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019, respectively (Fig. 1). Although 2019 was a drought year (with 230 

mm), 145 mm was received during the study period (study finished in April 2019). Mature weed seeds/fruits were collected by shaking the inflorescences into a tray, placed into a paper bag,

and stapled. A handheld GPS was used to record the coordinates of the collection site. On arrival, the paper bags were kept under a ventilated rainout shelter facility at Gatton and cleaned

seeds were kept in paper bags and stored in the rainout shelter facility. SEED PERSISTENCE STUDY USING MESH-BAGS UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS Fifty seeds of _S. oleraceus, R. rugosum,_ and _A.

mexicana_ from St. George and Gatton (two populations) were placed in mesh bags (nylon bags) and buried at 0, 2, and 10 cm depths at Gatton (November 2015). Before placing in mesh bags,

seeds were cleaned and winnowed through a custom-made seed vacuum cleaner and examined through a seed X-Ray unit (Faxitron seed X-ray unit) to ensure that seeds were of high quality and

filled. Bags were exhumed at different times (0, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, and 42 months after burial) and examined in the laboratory. Once exhumed, germination of seeds was assessed by

placing all the recovered seeds in a 9 cm diameter Petri dish with two Whatman No.1 filter papers and moistened with 5 ml of distilled water. Petri dishes were covered with zip-lock plastic

bags to minimize moisture loss and placed in an incubator set at day/night alternating temperatures of 20/10 °C for three weeks. Germination was recorded, the ungerminated seeds were gently

squeezed and the decayed seeds were subtracted from the recovered seeds to calculate the percentage of viable seeds. EMERGENCE PATTERN OF WEEDS IN TRAYS UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS One hundred

seeds were spread on the surface of seeding trays filled with a potting mix and placed on the soil surface under field conditions at the Gatton farm of the University of Queensland. Unlike

with the field soil, the potting mix was free of weed seeds and therefore, the potting mix was used in trays. Four weed populations each from St George and Gatton were evaluated from

November 2015 to May 2017 under the rainfed environment (Fig. 2). There were three replicate trays for each weed population. The emergence of weeds was recorded at a biweekly interval,

emerged seedlings were removed from the seed trays, and soil was disturbed to stimulate the germination and emergence of buried weed seeds. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Both studies (seedbank

persistence and emergence pattern) were conducted using a randomized complete block design with three replications of each treatment. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the differences

between the populations and the interaction between population and treatment were significant (Genstat 19th Edition); therefore, the data are presented separately for each population.

Percentage seed persistence and seed germination was expressed as the mean and the standard error was computed. Data were presented graphically with error bars representing the standard

error of means. Graphic representation of the data was done using the SigmaPlot software. RESULTS SEED PERSISTENCE AND EMERGENCE PATTERN OF SONCHUS OLERACEOUS In the mesh-bag study, at the

surface layer (0 cm), 63 and 61% of seeds of _S. oleraceous_ were viable for the Gatton and St George populations, respectively, at 3 months (Fig. 3). A quick depletion of _S. oleraceous_

seeds was noticed after 3 months, with 2 and 3% viable seeds present at 12 months for the Gatton and St George populations, respectively, and no viable seeds observed at 18 months and

afterward. At 2 cm depth, 87 and 79% viable seeds were recovered at 3 months for the Gatton and St George populations, respectively, and at 12 months, 31 and 24% seeds were recovered for the

Gatton and St George populations, respectively. All the seeds of _S. oleraceous_ were depleted by 24 months. At 10 cm depth, 60 and 58% of seeds were viable at 3 months for the Gatton and

St George populations, respectively. At 12 months, the seed viability was dropped to 19 and 21%, and no viable seeds were observed at 24 months and afterward. In trays, the first flush of

_S. oleraceous_ was observed 81 days after sowing (DAS) in February 2016 coinciding with the major rain event of January and February (Fig. 4). Subsequently, germination progressed over time

and the maximum proportion of cumulative germination was observed between 232 (June) to 340 DAS (October) coinciding with the winter growing season. The cumulative germination from all the

populations of _S. oleraceous_ varied between 22 to 29%. SEED PERSISTENCE AND EMERGENCE PATTERN OF RAPISTRUM RUGOSUM In the mesh-bag study, at 0 cm depth, 19 to 21% viable seeds of _R.

rugosum_ were observed after 3 months and there were progressive reductions over time (Fig. 5). At 12 months, 15 and 13% of seeds were viable for the Gatton and St George populations,

respectively. At 24 months, 5% of seeds were viable for both the populations for the surface layer, and seeds completely depleted by 30 months. At 2 cm depth, 67 and 58% of seeds were viable

at 3 months for the Gatton and St George populations, respectively. At 12 months, 55 and 43% of seeds were viable at Gatton and St George, respectively, and at 24 months, 31 and 27% of

seeds were viable for Gatton and St George, respectively. Substantial reductions in the recovered viable seeds were observed at 42 months as there were 8 and 13% of viable seeds at Gatton

and St George, respectively. At 10 cm depth, at 3 months, 57 and 54% of seeds were viable for Gatton and St George, respectively. At 12 months, 51 and 35% of seeds were viable for Gatton and

St George, respectively, and at 24 months, 26 and 31% of seeds were viable for Gatton and St George, respectively. Substantial reduction in the recovered viable seeds observed at 42 months

as observed at 2 cm depth, there were 6 and 5% of viable seeds at Gatton and St George, respectively. As for _S. oleraceous_, the major first flush of _R. rugosum_ in trays was observed at

81 DAS in February 2016, coinciding with the major rain event of January and February (Fig. 6). The second flush was observed between 232 to 340 DAS coinciding with the winter growing

season. The germination was stabilized by the end of the crop growing season and no germination was observed afterward. The cumulative germination of all the populations varied between 14

and 21%. SEED PERSISTENCE AND EMERGENCE PATTERN OF ARGEMONE MEXICANA In the mesh-bag study, at the surface layer, only 7 and 2% of viable seeds were observed at 3 months after seed placement

for Gatton and St George, respectively (Fig. 7). Seeds from the surface layer were split open or disintegrated when gently squeezed with a pair of forceps. At 12 months, less than 1% of

viable seeds were viable and seeds fully disintegrated at the surface layer by 18 months. At 2 cm depth, > 90% of seeds were observed at 3 months for both populations, and 84 and 83% of

seeds were viable at 12 months for the Gatton and St George populations, respectively. At 24 months, 74 and 71% of seeds were recovered at 2 cm for Gatton and St George, respectively. At 42 

months, 32–33% of seeds were viable for both populations. For both populations at 10 cm, 100% of seeds were viable at 3 months and 87–88% of seeds were viable at 12 months. At 24 months, 88

and 83% of seeds were viable for Gatton and St George, respectively, and 43 and 47% of seeds were viable at 42 months for the Gatton and St George populations, respectively. The first

emergence flush of _A. mexicana_ was noticed 148 DAS in March 2016 (Fig. 8). Although there was good summer rainfall of 93 and 80 mm in January and February of 2016, respectively, no

germination was observed during these months, indicating freshly harvested seeds were dormant for around 5 months in the field conditions. Observed emergence at 148 DAS was less than 2% and

the next flush was observed 248 DAS corresponding to July (winter season), and the cumulative emergence of all the populations was less than 6%. No further emergence was noticed until the

completion of the experiment. DISCUSSION Rapid depletion in seed viability of _S. oleraceous_ from the surface layer and lack of persistence beyond 2 years at 2 and 10 cm depths provides

some insights for the management of an infested paddock. Diversified weed management options to reduce the weed seedbank enrichment, including competitive crops in rotation, narrow row

spacing, high seeding rate, soil inversion tillage, herbicide rotation and use of herbicide mixtures may reduce the infestation of this species. Unlike _S. oleraceous_ that depleted in the

surface soil layer within 18 months, it took around 30 months for _R. rugosum_ seeds to lose all viability at the surface layer and a proportion of seeds were still viable even after 42 

months at 2 and 10 cm depths. Considering the high competitiveness of _R. rugosum_9, utmost care should be taken to manage this weed by integrating both chemical and non-chemical methods

with special emphasis to minimize the weed seedbank enrichment. Integration of inversion tillage will not yield desired results due to the slow depletion of seed viability when buried. _R.

rugosum_ exhibits continuous flowering and seed set but a high level of seed retention offers opportunities for destroying the weed seeds at wheat crop harvest9,12. The emergence of _S.

oleraceous_ and _R. rugosum_ in trays in early February (81 DAS) in response to summer rains indicate a proportion of the seeds could germinate well ahead of the winter season. However, the

emergence of _A. mexicana_ was later and occurred at 148 DAS in March. _S. oleraceous_ is characterized by a year-round germination pattern and freshly harvested seeds were devoid of

dormancy, indicating it could germinate when the environment is conducive for germination2,6,17. However, in the case of _R. rugosum_, the seed coat imposes dormancy, freshly harvested seeds

exhibit 100% dormancy, and once silique is removed seeds germinate1,11. The results indicate that a portion of freshly harvested seeds of _R. rugosum_ released dormancy under the field

environment and emerged along with _S. oleraceous_. In the case of _A. mexicana,_ the germination in trays was poor and the observed germination was confined to early winter and winter

growing seasons indicating release of dormancy under field conditions will be towards the winter crop growing season. For _A. mexicana_, rapid depletion of seeds was observed from the

surface layer (Fig. 7). The reason for the quick disintegration of seeds placed at the surface layer in mesh-bags is not clear; however, nylon bags restricting the movement of seeds to

bottom layers and exposure to sunlight, alternate wetting, and thawing or infestation of insects or diseases could be the possible reasons for the rapid disintegration of seeds. The

germination in trays was also poor indicating either seeds were disintegrated as observed in nylon bags or moved to bottom layers and persisted or remained dormant; a high level of seed

persistence was observed at 2 and 10 cm depths. A previous study confirms the poor germination of _A. mexicana_, as a majority of seeds did not germinate during their first season after

shedding due to strong dormancy and seeds tend to be persistent for several years8. High persistence of buried seeds of _A. mexicana_ warrants careful management of the weed. Weed seeds

could easily move in water crevices, acquire dormancy, and persist for several years (CottonInfo 2014; Karlsson et al. 2003). Due to these reasons, soil inversion tillage may not yield the

desired result as it is impossible to bring all the buried seeds to the soil surface and seeds that are covered by soil up to 2 cm depth showed a substantial level of persistence.

Competition from wheat leads to the suppression of this weed9, indicating the possibility to enhance crop competitiveness as a strategy that could be integrated with other weed management

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FUNDING This work was supported by a grant from Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC), Australia, under project UA00156. AUTHOR INFORMATION AUTHORS AND AFFILIATIONS * Queensland

Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4343, Australia Sudheesh Manalil & Bhagirath Singh Chauhan * School of Agriculture and

Environment, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia Sudheesh Manalil * Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India Sudheesh Manalil * School of Agriculture and Food Sciences

(SAFS), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4343, Australia Bhagirath Singh Chauhan * Adjunct Faculty, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University (CCSHAU), Hisar,

Haryana, 125004, India Bhagirath Singh Chauhan Authors * Sudheesh Manalil View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Bhagirath Singh Chauhan View

author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar CONTRIBUTIONS Conceptualization: BSC; Data curation: SM, BSC; Formal analysis: BSC; Funding acquisition: BSC;

Methodology: BSC; Resources: BSC; Writing – original draft: SM; Writing – review & editing: SM, BSC. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Correspondence to Bhagirath Singh Chauhan. ETHICS DECLARATIONS

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permissions ABOUT THIS ARTICLE CITE THIS ARTICLE Manalil, S., Chauhan, B.S. Seedbank persistence and emergence pattern of _Argemone mexicana_, _Rapistrum rugosum_ and _Sonchus oleraceus_ in

the eastern grain region of Australia. _Sci Rep_ 11, 18095 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97614-8 Download citation * Received: 27 March 2021 * Accepted: 27 August 2021 *

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